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Al-Manar

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For the former Egyptian Islamic magazine, see Al-Manar (magazine).
"Al Manar" redirects here. For other uses, see Manar.

Al-Manar
TypeSatellite television network
Country
Lebanon
Availability
Webcast
MottoStation of the resistance
HeadquartersHaret Hreik, Beirut
OwnerHezbollah
(Lebanese Communication Group)
Launch date
4 June 1991; 33 years ago (1991-06-04)
Picture format
4:3 (576i · SDTV)
Official website
english.almanar.com.lb Edit this at Wikidata
Part of a series on
Hezbollah
Political activities
Military activities
Capabilities
Organizations
Media
People
Secretaries-General
Senior officials

Al-Manar (Arabic: المنار, romanized: al-Manār, lit. ''The Lighthouse'') is a Lebanese satellite television station owned and operated by the Islamist political party Hezbollah,[1][2] broadcasting from Beirut, Lebanon.[3] The channel was launched on 4 June 1991 and it is a member of the Arab States Broadcasting Union. The station is considered one of Hezbollah's most important global propaganda tools, and reaches around 50 million people.[4]

It is banned in the United States, France, Spain, and Germany, and has run into some service and license problems outside Lebanon,[5] making it unavailable in the Netherlands,[6][7] Canada, and Australia.[8][9]

According to the RAND Corporation in 2017, "Al-Manar has an annual budget of roughly $15 million, much of it supplied by wealthy expatriate Lebanese donors and various Iranian community organizations, and income from the sale of its shows."[10]

History

[edit]

Al-Manar first began terrestrial broadcasting from Beirut, Lebanon on 4 June 1991.[11] In 2000 the station also began broadcasting via satellite.[12] The station was located in the predominantly Shi'a neighborhood of Haret Hreik in the southern suburbs of Beirut, where the Hezbollah is also headquartered.[12] Originally, the station employed only a few men that had studied media in London during the mid-1980s. But almost a year later, Al-Manar was employing over 150 people.[12]

Initially, Al Manar would broadcast five hours per day. Shortly before the 1992 election, it began broadcasting regular news bulletins in order to help Hezbollah attain more votes and spread its message to more people. In 1993, the station expanded its broadcasting to seven hours a day and extended its signal to the southern part of the Bekaa Valley. Ahead of the 1996 Lebanese parliamentary elections, additional antennas were erected in Northern Lebanon and throughout the Mount Lebanon range, so that the station could be viewed not only in Lebanon, but also in western Syria and northern Israel. Broadcasting was extended to 20 hours in 1998 but reduced to 18 hours in 2000.[13]

In 1996, the Lebanese government granted broadcasting licenses to five television stations, not including Al-Manar. Approximately 50 stations were forced to close at the time. Several stations appealed the government's decision, but only four of them were finally granted licenses, one of which was Al-Manar. On 18 September, the Lebanese Cabinet decided to grant Al-Manar a license after having been requested to do so by then Syrian president Hafiz al-Asad. Al-Manar received the license in July 1997.[14]

According to media scholars Muhammad Muhsen and Orayb Aref Najjar, it started in this period to embed journalists with Hezbollah fighters, showing video of Israeli casualties, and including Hebrew so Israeli viewers could follow, with the aim of sowing fear among Israeli viewers.[15]

On 24/25 June 1999 the IAF launched two massive air raids across Lebanon. One of the targets was the al-Manar radio station's offices in a four storey building in Baalbek which was completely demolished. The attacks also hit Beirut's power stations and bridges on the roads to the south. An estimated $52 million damage was caused. Eleven Lebanese were killed as well as two Israelis in Kiryat Shmona. [16]

Satellite broadcasting

[edit]

During the 1990s, the popularity of satellite broadcasting greatly increased in the Arab world and in Lebanon. The first Lebanese station to use this technology was Future Television, launching Future International SAT in 1994, while LBCI and the Lebanese government followed by launching LBCSAT and Tele Liban Satellite respectively. In order to compete with these emerging stations, and in order to find an international audience, Al-Manar announced its intention to launch a satellite channel on 9 March 2000. Muhammad Ra'd, a Hezbollah member of parliament and al-Manar's largest shareholder, submitted the request to the minister of transmission, which was approved in April 2000. Although the launch of the satellite station was originally planned for July, the date was moved up in order to coincide with the end of the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon on 25 May. This success led other television stations to follow in launching satellite stations, including Murr TV in November 2000, but it was shut down for "violating an election law prohibiting propaganda" – a fate which al-Manar did not meet, although its programming was also considered propaganda by many analysts.[who?][citation needed] ArabSat, a leading communications satellite operator in the Middle East, headquartered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, was at first wary about collaborating with al-Manar, because of the station's Shi'a agenda[citation needed] – the two companies agreed, however, that the programming would be adapted to the pan-Arab audience, leading to a slight difference between the local broadcast and the one via satellite. At first, only three hours of satellite programming were broadcast per day, but by December 2000, the station was broadcasting around the clock.[17]

The timing of the satellite launch - covering the Israeli withdrawal and also the start of the Second Intifada - boosted its audience in the Arab world.[18]

Al-Manar was soon carried by many satellite providers. However, starting with the removal of the station from TARBS World TV in Australia in 2003, many satellite television providers stopped featuring it. Until then the station was featured by the following providers at one time or another:

According to the BBC on 26 July 2006, Al-Manar had three satellite signals:[19]

  • ArabSat 2B at 30.5 degrees east
  • Badr 3 at 26 degrees east
  • NileSat 102 at 7 degrees west

By 2004, Al Manar was estimated to hold 10-15 million viewers daily worldwide.[20] By 2009, al-Manar was watched by some 18 million people globally.[21]

Al-Manar during the 2006 Lebanon war

[edit]

Israeli Air Force strike

[edit]

The channel was continuously struck by missiles during Israeli air raids. The Israeli Air Force attacks on 13 July 2006 led to injury of three employees.[22][23] The attack on Al-Manar's facilities shortly followed another strike against the Rafic Hariri International Airport in Beirut earlier that morning. Despite the attack, the station remained on air, broadcasting from undisclosed locations.[citation needed]

The IDF bombed Al-Manar's Beirut complex again on 16 July causing fire in the complex and surrounding buildings. The station's signal disappeared briefly several times, then continued normal programming.[24]

Human Rights Watch said the bombing of media outlets violates international law when they are not being used for military purposes ("it is unlawful to attack facilities that merely shape civilian opinion; neither directly contributes to military operations").[25]

The incident was condemned by the International Federation of Journalists.[26] The Israel Association of Journalists withdrew from the federation in response, claiming that Al-Manar employees "are not journalists, they are terrorists".[27][28]

The New York based Committee to Protect Journalists, also expressed alarm over the incident as "it (Al-Manar) does not appear based on a monitoring of its broadcasts today to be serving any discernible military function, according to CPJ's analysis."[29]

2013 Bahrain crisis

[edit]

Iranian-backed Shia groups were involved in demonstrations starting in mid-2011 (as part of the "Arab Spring") against Bahrain's ruling Sunni oligarchy, and al-Manar backed these demonstrations and condemned the government repression of them. In late December 2013, the Lebanese Communication Group that includes Al-Manar apologised for its partisan coverage of the events at a meeting of the Arab States Broadcasting Union. In response, Hebollah forced the Director General of the station, Abdallah Qasir or Kassir (a former MP of former MP of Hezbollah’s Loyalty to the Resistance parliamentary bloc), to resign. He went to Iran.[30][31][32]

2020s

[edit]

According to Orayb Aref Najjar, after the US assassination of Qasem Soleimani, leader of the Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps on January 3, 2020, "Al-Manar went on a daily attack on U.S. policy on Iran and the region, promising revenge."[15]

Al-Manar translates its content into Spanish for circulation in Latin America.[33]

Content

[edit]

Al-Manar's programming is diverse, including music shows, children's programmes and news. The Washington Post, said in 2004 that "It heavily covers events involving the Palestinians, and it shows militants setting off explosives and shooting at Israelis and American troops, often to musical accompaniment." Citing the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, the Post said it often features Islamic sacred texts and images of martyrdom.[34] According to the Washington Institute's 2004 analysis, it consists of 25% music videos and fillers, 25% series and dramas, 25% talk shows, and finally 25% news and family shows.[35]

Programs

[edit]

The news programming includes much footage from the international press. Additionally the station subscribes to the following wire services: Reuters, Associated Press, Agence France Presse, and Deutsche Presse Agentur. The station airs eight news bulletins a day in Arabic in addition to one in English and one in French.[36]

Al-Manar primarily uses Iranian and Syrian government news agencies for news and documentaries.[15] It has had a formal co-operation agreement with IRNA since 2012.[37] On its websites it also republishes material verbatim from Russian state broadcaster RT.[38] It extensively screens Iranian films and television series including soap operas, dubbed into Modern Standard Arabic, as well as Syrian series.[15]

Several talk shows are regularly aired on al-Manar. The best known of these is Beit al-ankabut (The Spider's House); its title alludes to a metaphor, Hassan Nasrallah often employs to describe Israel. It is dedicated to uncovering the "weakness of the Zionist entity", i.e. Israel. It attempts to convince the Arab world that Israel could easily be destroyed, for example, by an increase in the Arab population and the implementation of the Palestinian right of return.[39] Further talk shows include Hadith al-sa'a (Talk of the Hour), Matha ba'ad (What's Next?), Ma'al Hadath (With The Event), Bayna Kawsayn (Between The Brackets), Milafat (Files), Al-din wa al-hayat (Religion and Life), and Nun wa al-qalam (The 'Nun' and the Pen). Guests include well-known journalists, analysts, writers, Lebanese politicians, spokespersons of terrorist groups, and Islamic scholars, who then discuss current religious, political, and cultural, regional and global topics.[40]

Al-Manar often airs music videos and fillers in between full-length programs and during commercial breaks. The music videos are generally dedicated to the following seven purposes: the promotion of the Hezbollah, highlighting the importance of armed resistance against Israel, the glorification of martyrdom, spreading of anti-Americanism, denunciation of Israel and Zionism as the embodiments of terrorism, the appeals for the destruction of Israel, and the depiction of the future of Arab youths.[41] The videos are on average three minutes long. The videos are usually professionally produced by the station itself and each usually takes about three to four days to make.[41] The filler material usually consists of appeals to donate money to the Hezbollah, lists of demonstrations taking place worldwide, and slogans in English, Hebrew, or Arabic.[42]

The station also offers sports broadcasting such as the programs Goal and Tis'in daqiqa (Ninety Minutes), family programming such as Al-mustakshifoun al-judud (The New Explorers), Al-Muslimoun fi al-Sin (Muslims in China), and Ayday al-khayr (Hands of Benevolence), game shows including Al-mushahid shahid (The Viewer Is the Witness), where contestants attempt to guess the names of Israeli political and military figures, and Al-muhima (The Mission - a game show in the style of Who Wants to be a Millionaire but with questions on Arab and Islamic history and the victor winning a virtual trip to the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem[15]), and even a children's program called Al-manr al-saghir (The Little Manar), which is in the style of the US show Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood, targeting three- to seven-year-olds.[42]

During Ramadan, al-Manar features special programs, many of which are self-produced. In 2001, Izz al-Din al-Qassam: Qisat al-jihad wa al-muqawama (Izz al-Din al-Qassam: A Story of Jihad and Resistance), a four-part drama based on the life of Izz al-Din al-Qassam, an early-twentieth-century Arab, after whom the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades are named. It was considered a success among Palestinians. The 2002 program Faris bi la jawad (A Knight without a Horse), which was produced by an Egyptian, was based on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, an old Russian antisemitic text claiming a conspiracy of Jews control the world, like many programs of the station. The 29-part series Ash-Shatat (The Diaspora), which was aired in 2003, was also based on The Protocols and produced in Syria; it led to the banning of al-Manar in France.[43][44]

The station archives the complete speeches of Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah, and those of Iranian leader Ali Khamenei.[15]

Stance

[edit]

According to The SAGE Encyclopedia of Journalism, "Al-Manar does not claim neutrality but bills itself as partisan to the cause of its constituents, initially, the disadvantaged and poor Shi’ia of [Lbbanon's] South and the Beka’a valley; later expanded to include the Arab and Islamic worlds." Its adopted slogan is “The channel for Arabs and Muslims”.[15] The station manager Muhammad Afif Ahmad, said that Al Manar belongs to Hezbollah culturally and politically.[45]

According to Avi Jorisch of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, writing in National Review in 2004, its programming adopts a strongly anti-Israel and anti-US point of view. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah often "calls for 'Death to America'" on the channel and the Statue of Liberty is depicted "as a ghoul, her gown dripping blood, a knife instead of a torch in her raised hand."[46]

Al-Manar was once[when?] described[by whom?] as one of the channels, among other complex reasons, of the spread of Shiism in Syria in the years before 2009.[47] In a 2011 poll, 52% percent of Shia Lebanese identified Al Manar TV ofas their first choice for news, compared with only 4% of Sunnis and Druze and 1% of Christians.[48]

Until the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, Al-Manar's programming political focus was mainly against the Israeli presence in Lebanon. While the withdrawal in May 2000 left a void in the station's programming, Hezbollah and A-Manar consider the Shebaa Farms to be Lebanese territory occupied by Israel, and this became a focal point for political programming. In September of that year, the al-Aqsa Intifada broke out, and Al-Manar began to cover the issue of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict more extensively, overtly propagandizing to support the Palestinian militants.[49]

Journalistic standards and restrictions

[edit]

According to Al Manar's news director, Hassan Fadlallah, Al Manar does not aim to be neutral in its broadcasting, "Neutrality like that of Al Jazeera is out of the question for us," Fadlallah said. "We cover only the victim, not the aggressor. CNN is the Zionist news network, Al Jazeera is neutral, and Al Manar takes the side of the Palestinians...He said Al Manar's opposition to neutrality means that, unlike Al Jazeera, his station would never feature interviews or comments by Israeli officials. "We're not looking to interview Sharon," Fadlallah said. "We want to get close to him in order to kill him."[20]

Allegations of antisemitism and conspiracy theories

[edit]

9/11 Conspiracy theories

[edit]
See also: 9/11 conspiracy theories

Al-Manar was one of the sites that originated the myth that Israelis stayed home from the World Trade Center on September 11 2001 due to foreknowledge of the attacks, publishing the story on 17 September.[50][51]

Allegations of antisemitic programming

[edit]

Al-Manar TV makes videos and texts with antisemitic stereotypes such as the conspiracy pamphlet "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" or the glorification of suicide bombers accessible worldwide.[52]

One of the satellite providers which has transmitted Al-Manar is the French satellite Hot Bird 4, owned by the Eutelsat Satellite organisation. On 13 December 2004, the French Conseil d'État, the highest administrative Court in France, ordered the French-based Eutelsat Company to shut down Al-Manar broadcasts following accusations that its programmes were antisemitic and could incite hatred.[53][54] "French officials cited al-Manar programs reporting that Jews spread AIDS around the world and that they seek children's blood to bake into Passover matzoh."[34] This followed complaints by the Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France to the French Higher Audio Visual Council (CSA) that scenes in a 30 part Syrian-made series, Al-Shatat (The Diaspora), which purported to depict the history of the Zionist movement, portrayed the killing of a Christian child by Jews to use the victim's blood.[55] Al-Manar claims the French decision was political and not legal, influenced by Israel and Jewish lobbies.[56]

According to German public television ARD 2023, the station broadcasts calls for the destruction of Israel and antisemitic incitement. This particularly includes statements from Hamas as well as from leaders of the Islamist Hezbollah organization in Lebanon. Hashem Safieddine, chairman of the Hezbollah Executive Council, used the channel to warn US President Joe Biden, Israel's Prime Minister President Netanyahu and the "evil Europeans" about his organization.[52]

Covid conspiracies

[edit]

According to The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, al-Manar "condemned the United States for ‘using’ COVID-19 to ‘undermine’ its adversaries".[57]

Restrictions

[edit]

Designation as a 'terrorist entity'

[edit]

Al-Manar was designated as a "Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity", and banned by the United States on 17 December 2004.[58][59] A US government spokesman said the decision was taken because of "its incitement of terrorist activity", and that anybody linked to Al-Manar would be refused a visa to enter the US or if present in the US would be subject to expulsion procedures. Al-Manar was also removed from the satellite provider in the US, Intelsat, and Globecast, the TV service that hosted its US programming.[60][34] Lebanon's ambassador to the United States, Farid Abboud, protested: "If you want simply to demonize or eliminate one side, you're not going to advance the issue. If you are going to focus on one side simply because of the political message, it's unacceptable and it's a grave breach of the freedom of speech.".[59] Reporters without Borders opposed the designation, saying "Some of the anti-Semitic statements broadcast on Al-Manar are inexcusable but putting this TV station in the same category as terrorist groups worries us and does not strike us as the best solution".[60]

In the same year, France ordered its satellite operator there, Eutelsat, to cease distribution of the channel, saying its programming had "a militant perspective with anti-Semitic connotations."[60]

In March 2006 Al-Manar was designated as a "Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity" by the United States, declaring it "owned or controlled by the Iran-funded Hezbollah terrorist network".[61] As a result, Al-Manar was made subject to US sanctions.[3][61][62]

In May 2023, the US government sanctioned and took down a number of Hezbollah-related web domains, including that of Al-Manar TV, after Hezbollah was listed as a terrorist organization by the United States. Al Manar’s Lebanese domain (.lb) remained accessible.[63]

Banning of broadcasts

[edit]

TARBS World TV voluntarily stopped broadcasting al-Manar in Australia on 5 November 2003, 15 days into an investigation by the ABA regarding accusations of "broadcast programs that are likely to incite or perpetuate hatred against or gratuitously vilify any person or group on the basis of their ethnicity, nationality, race or religion". The report for this investigation was never finalised as TARBS had gone into receivership by that time.[citation needed] In August 2009, Al-Manar received approval for broadcast by the Australian Communications and Media Authority.[64][better source needed]

After the U.S. Department of State placed Al-Manar on the Terrorist Exclusion List in December 2004, transmissions to North America via Intelsat's satellites were blocked.[59][65] Javed Iqbal, a resident of New York City, was the first person to charged under this law. He was charged by federal prosecutors with providing material support to a foreign terrorist organization by broadcasting Al Manar to American customers, in exchange for thousands of dollars payment. In a 2008 plea bargain, he agreed to serve a prison term of up to 6+1⁄2 years. Saleh Elahwal, who also operated HDTV, was also charged and went on trial 5 January 2009.[66][67] Donna Lieberman, executive director of the New York Civil Liberties Union, says it's constitutional for the government to outlaw businesses with direct operational ties to terrorist organizations, and media outlets that directly incite and direct violent action, but in this case, the government is trying to stop the spread of ideas.[68] Mark Dubowitz, who founded the Coalition Against Terrorist Media in part to stop Al-Manar, said Al-Manar was "shouting fire in a crowded theater", although Lieberman disagreed with that metaphor.[68] It was also banned in France in 2004,[69]

In 2005, the Dutch Media Authority "discovered that a satellite owned by New Skies Satellites was carrying Al-Manar and has ordered the company to stop doing so, because the channel did not have the required Dutch licence."[70][71] Many, including Radio Netherlands Worldwide Media Network[6][7] consider this to be a ban. Spanish authorities banned the retransmission of Al-Manar by Hispasat on 30 June 2005 (which effectively prevents its reception not only in the Iberian Peninsula but also in South America).[72]

It was banned in Germany in 2008.[73][better source needed]

The lack of transmission from Intelsat had the effect of making Al-Manar unavailable in Canada,[when?] which some have interpreted as a "ban".[74][better source needed]

Internet and social media

[edit]

The channel provides a live feed of its programming on the Internet through its website. This effectively circumvents the bans as Al-Manar is still available in all the areas it does not broadcast to via satellite.[citation needed]

Twitter removed its account in November 2019.[75]

On 22 June 2021, the official Al-Manar website domain as well as dozens of other Arab news network domains related to Iran, Lebanon and Syria were shut down by the government of the United States for spreading disinformation. It was also banned by multiple social media platforms including YouTube, Twitter, Instagram and Reddit.[76]

Broadcasting via illegal IPTV services and streaming devices

[edit]

According to a 2008 report by the security company NAGRA and the Digital Citizens Alliance, following an investigation into illegal IPTV services and illicit streaming devices, it indicated that 50% of these services include Al-Manar, making it available in countries where the channel has been banned due to links with Hezbollah.[77]

On October 26, 2020, the Digital Citizens Alliance released a video warning of terrorist content that could include several of these illegal services, including Al-Manar.[78]

Google and Apple applications

[edit]

As reported by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), in 25 July 2012, Al Manar launched an application through Apple's iTunes app store, directing users to various content produced by the Hezbollah television station, including speeches by Hezbollah leader, Hassan Nasrallah.[79][80]

However, the application was subsequently removed from iTunes and Google Play.[81] Maha Abouelenein, Head of Communications for the Mena at Google, subsequently stated that "We remove applications that violate our policies, such as apps that are illegal or that promote hate speech" although she added that "We don't comment on individual applications – however, you can check out our policies for more."[82]

Al Manar TV subsequently blamed "Israeli incitement against Al Manar TV" as the reason Al-Manar mobile apps were removed by Apple and Google. An Al-Manar TV reporter stated that: "Al Manar TV is once again targeted by America and Israel. The removal of the channel's mobile apps from the Google and Apple stores is a new attempt to curb Al-Manar's message of resistance.[83]

Al Manar TV Director-General Abdallah Qasir stated that the removal of the apps "indicates that Al Manar TV has the ability to cause great harm to Israel, and that Israel is extremely annoyed by Al Manar becoming so widespread and by its great credibility. Israel cannot even bear to see the Al-Manar icon on smartphones." Abd Al-Hadi Mahfouz, president of the Lebanese National Media Council, also supported Al-Manar, arguing that: "This move contradicts all laws pertaining to radio and television, to the exercising of media liberties, and to the right of citizens, Western and Arab alike, to information." Rabi' Al-Ba'lbaki, the head of the Lebanese IT Association reportedly called for a boycott of Apple and Google if they do not restore service for Al-Manar's applications.[83]

In a statement issued on 16 August 2012, Al Manar says it is "back on Ipad and Iphone applications via alternative ways, following the campaign carried out by the Jewish Anti-Defamation League to deactivate Al-Manar applications on smart phones at Google Play and apple store".[84] In an effort to avoid distributor policies and control, the new applications are downloadable directly from Al-Manar's website, which is hosted British server.[84] The website also provides instructions, along with screen shots, on configuring Android phones to accept applications "not sourced in Android Market" and for installing the application on iPhones.[84]

In March 2014, Al Manar relaunched their application in Apple's iTunes store under the name "LCG."[85]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Germany bans Hezbollah’s al-Manar TV Channel Archived 20 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine 21 November 2008, Ya Libnan
  2. ^ "Lebanon media guide". BBC News. 24 August 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2024.
  3. ^ a b Elise Labott and Henry Schuster (2006). "Lebanese media outlets' assets blocked". CNN.
  4. ^ BR, Sabina Wolf. ""Al-Manar TV": Islamistische Propaganda über deutsche Server". tagesschau.de (in German). Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  5. ^ "Commission of the European Communities" (PDF). Wales. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2007. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
  6. ^ a b Radio Netherlands Worldwide Blog Iranian commentator reacts to Dutch ban on two satellite TV stations Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 30 July 2006
  7. ^ a b Radio Netherlands Worldwide Blog Two Islamic TV stations banned in the Netherlands Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 30 July 2006
  8. ^ ABA News Release NR 135/2004 22 October 2004 ABA investigation into Al Manar programming on TARBS Retrieved 15 August 2006
  9. ^ "Cable broadcaster under investigation by ABA". ABC Australia. 14 November 2003.
  10. ^ Clarke, Colin P. (19 September 2017). "How Hezbollah Came to Dominate Information Warfare". RAND. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  11. ^ Zahera Harb (2011). Channels of Resistance in Lebanon: Liberation Propaganda, Hezbollah and the Media. I.B.Tauris. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-84885-120-7.
  12. ^ a b c Jorisch (2004), p. 26
  13. ^ Jorisch (2004), pp. 26–27
  14. ^ Jorisch (2004), pp. 23–25
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Najjar 2022, p. 85.
  16. ^ Middle East International. No 603, 2 July 1999; Publishers Christopher Mayhew. Dennis Walters; Michael Jansen pp.4-5; Reinoud Leendes pp.5&7
  17. ^ Jorisch (2004), pp. 25–27
  18. ^ Najjar 2022, p. 84.
  19. ^ BBC News, 26 July 2006 Israel steps up "psy-ops" in Lebanon Retrieved 1 August 2006
  20. ^ a b Jeffrey Goldberg (14 October 2002). "A Reporter at Large: In The Party of God (Part I)". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008.
  21. ^ Alagha, J. (2011) Hizbullah's identity construction. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ. Press. https://nbn-resolving.org/ urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-273678
  22. ^ International Press Institute (December 2006). "Media in Lebanon: Reporting on a Nation Divided" (PDF). IPI. Archived from the original (Mission Report) on 19 September 2011.
  23. ^ IFEX. 'Israeli forces strike Al-Manar TV facilities, 14 July 2006.
  24. ^ "Lebanese News Network Draws Fire as Arm of Militant Group - WSJ". Archived from the original on 11 September 2019.
  25. ^ "Can Israel attack Hezbollah radio and television stations?". August 2006. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  26. ^ "International Federation of Journalists condemned bombing of Al-Manar". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  27. ^ Jerusalem Post, 16 July 2006, Israel threatens to leave World Press Federation Note that this article refers to the "World Press Federation" in an apparent error
  28. ^ Jerusalem Post, 20 July 2006, Israeli journalists pull out of IFJ Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 July 2006
  29. ^ "Israeli forces strike Al-Manar TV facilities". Retrieved 27 March 2007.[permanent dead link]
  30. ^ "Al- Manar TV chief quits – Ya Libnan". Ya Libnan – Lebanon News and World News Live from Beirut. 26 December 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  31. ^ Manar TV Director says farewell: resigns from post Thursday following Bahrain backlash, al-Bawaba, December 26th, 2013
  32. ^ "REPORT: Al Manars director, Abdallah Kassir resigns". LBCIV7. 25 December 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  33. ^ "Iran and Hezbollah expands its influence in Latin America". IFMAT. 2 September 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  34. ^ a b c Mintz, John (22 December 2004). "U.S. Bans Al-Manar, Says TV Network Backs Terror". Washington Post. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  35. ^ Jorisch (2004), p. 36
  36. ^ Jorisch (2004), p. 101
  37. ^ "IRNA, Al Manar reach agreement on media cooperation". IRNA English. 13 March 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2024.
  38. ^ Schafer, Bret (30 May 2024). "The Russian Propaganda Nesting Doll: How RT is Layered Into the Digital Information Environment". GMFUS. Retrieved 14 November 2024.
  39. ^ Jorisch (2004), p. 102
  40. ^ Jorisch (2004), pp. 102–103
  41. ^ a b Jorisch (2004), p. 104
  42. ^ a b Jorisch (2004), p. 105
  43. ^ Jorisch (2004), pp. 103–104
  44. ^ Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center at the Center for Special Studies: Legal proceedings to ban Al-Manar in France and Lebanon’s rushing to Hezbollah’s aid Archived 1 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ The Washington Post, 19 June 1995, Al-Manar: Hizbullah TV, 24/7, Avi Jorisch, Middle East Quarterly Winter 2004, pp. 17–31
  46. ^ Jorisch, Avi (22 December 2004). "Terrorist Television: Hezbollah has a worldwide reach". National Review. Archived from the original on 23 December 2004. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  47. ^ Sindawi (2009)
  48. ^ "Al Jazeera: The Most-Feared News Network". Brookings. 20 August 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  49. ^ Jorisch (2004), p. 84
  50. ^ Mikkelson, David (21 September 2001). "Thousands of Israelis Were Absent from the WTC on 9/11?". Snopes. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  51. ^ Grant, Linda (18 December 2001). "The hate that will not die". the Guardian. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  52. ^ a b BR, Sabina Wolf. ""Al-Manar TV": Islamistische Propaganda über deutsche Server". tagesschau.de (in German). Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  53. ^ (full text of the decision Archived 17 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine, press release Archived 17 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine, in French; BBC report)
  54. ^ EU, Brussels, 17 March 2005 EU Rules and Principles on Hate Broadcasts: Frequently Asked Questions Retrieved 26 July 2006
  55. ^ Cochrane, Paul (7 March 2007). "Bombs and broadcasts: Al Manar's battle to stay on air". Arab Media & Society. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  56. ^ Al Jazeera, 27 December 2004 US designates Al-Manar TV 'terrorist' Archived 18 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 1 August 2006
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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